Education and Culture
Education and Culture
The educational system and out-of-school study
The Jewish educational system in Zamosc was rooted in a rich and long-standing tradition. The right of Jews to settle in Zamosc and to establish their own denominational school originated in the Settlement Privilege Decree of 1588 (the first Jewish School was founded at the beginning of the seventeenth century and was located on the premises of the Jewish community's consistory). In
By the end of the nineteenth century, "modern cheders", run by Chaim Bryskier and Godel, played a role similar to that of the
Traditionally, cheders played a leading role in the schooling of Jewish youth. During the period preceding the First World War, Zamosc was home to approximately 20 places of study of this kind. After 1915 some 150 cheder teachers, the so-called ‘melameds’, lived in Zamosc.
In 1908 Hersz Chaim Gelibter, a graduate of the Hebrew Gymnasium in Jaffa, set up the Hebrew School Society, and eventually a progressive cheder was opened there. At the time of its establishment, the institution, inspired by the principles of the Ibrith B'Ibrith School, was the only school of its kind in the
In the first years after the reemergence of the
· Zionism – focusing on the Hebrew language and culture, the cultivation of the national spirit and hostility towards Yiddishkeit.
· Secularism – advocating a non-religious approach, the propagation of Yiddish and Yiddish culture, hostility towards Zionist ideas, and education of youth in the spirit of socialism.
· Religious Zionism – combining Zionist elements with religious education.
· General Judaism – attempting to reconcile Zionist and religious elements with the Yiddish language and culture.
· Religious education - traditional, religious education
· National education – non-partisan in matters of religion, of Yiddish culture and Zionism, and with Polish as the only language of instruction. However, certain elements of Jewish culture were included: celebration of the Sabbath, study of Jewish history, the Bible and the Hebrew language.
Among Jewish schools that functioned in Zamosc in the years 1918-1939, the Zionist stream was represented by the Polish-Hebrew Public School "Kadima" and by the "Tarbut" School; the secular stream was represented by the I.L. Perec Secular, Public School, run by the Association of Yiddish Schools (CISzO – Centrale Jidysze Szul Organizacje); the religious Zionist stream was represented by the Jabne School run by Mizrachi; the religious stream was represented by two cheder schools – "Talmud-Torah" and “Bejs Jakow" - and by the "Etz-Chaim" yeshivas; and, finally, the national stream was represented by the Coeducational Classical Gymnasium of the Jewish Community (later to become the Private Coeducational Gymnasium of the Association of Jewish High Schools). In the period between the wars, nine Jewish schools operated in Zamosc in addition to the cheders. It is also noteworthy that a significant percentage of Jewish children and youth attended Polish elementary schools and high schools.
The
Since the establishment of the school, Hersz Chaim Gelibter was both its owner and licensee. Aron Mordko Hercberg was the school's first principal and kept his position until 1921. The school was under the supervision of the Zamosc Board of Education, and while the principal was in charge of pedagogical and educational matters, the licensee attended to matters of hygiene and sanitation. In 1932 Gelibter passed his license on to Szulim Wajner, the principal at that time. Wajner, who in 1921 succeeded Mordko as principal and managed the school for the next thirteen years, was the owner of the school for two years only, until his departure for
In the years 1920-1935, thirteen teachers were teaching at "Kadima": Szulim Wajner, Karolina Mannheim, Liba Lewin, Sara Wajnrib, Izaak Zalc, Kelman Engelstein, Menia Zalcman, Adela Lerer, Izaak Wajnstuck, Mala Fridman, Frymeta Efros and in the last year of the school's operation, Syma Frydling and Szymon Liliensztajn. Most of them had a high school education. The only university-trained teacher was Syma Frydling, while Izaak Zalc had completed a pedagogical course in
The syllabus of the "Kadima" school was based on a somewhat modified and slightly expanded 6-grade elementary school program. All in all, seventeen subjects were taught at the school. Polish and Hebrew were the languages of instruction. The Bible, the Talmud, Jewish history and religion classes were taught in Hebrew. In addition to the six grades offered by the school, a preparatory grade was established for future pupils of the school. Polish and Hebrew – the languages of instruction at the school – were the main subjects taught in the preparatory grade.
Syllabus of the Polish-Hebrew Popular School "Kadimah"
in the school year 1928-1929.
Subject |
Grade |
||||||
|
Preparatory |
I |
II |
III |
IV |
V |
VI |
Religion |
- |
2 |
3 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
Bible |
- |
3 |
7 |
5 |
4 |
4 |
4 |
Talmud |
- |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
2 |
4 |
Rashi |
- |
- |
- |
3 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
Polish language |
11 |
8 |
9 |
7 |
6 |
5 |
5 |
Hebrew language |
10 |
9 |
7 |
4 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
German language |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
2 |
General history |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
2 |
Polish history |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
2 |
- |
- |
Jewish history |
- |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
2 |
2 |
Algebra |
- |
3 |
3 |
4 |
4 |
4 |
4 |
Geography |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
Botany |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
Drawing |
2 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
Singing |
1 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
- |
Physical education |
2 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
Total |
28 |
32 |
36 |
36 |
36 |
36 |
36 |
The school grew particularly fast during the second half of the 1920s. In October 1928 there were 185 pupils in the six grades of the school - the largest number in its history. In the early 1930s a crisis set in. In September 1931 only 104 pupils enrolled and the number of grades dropped to 5 (including the preparatory grade) and 1934 and 1935 were the school's final years. In June 1935 only 25 pupils completed their studies at the school.
It is noteworthy that in the years 1926-1932, the pupils who did not advance to the next grade made up approximately 13-15% of the total student population. In 1933, as many as 25% of the "Kadima" school's pupils had to repeat a grade. The very high and growing percentage of pupils who did not advance to the next grade probably reflects the low standard of education offered by the school.
Most of the pupils at this school were boys. In the course of time their percentage kept growing. In 1926, they made up 57.9 % of all the pupils, in 1928 – 59.5 %, in 1929 – 61.6 %, in 1931 – 62.5 %, in 1932 – 67.4 % and 81.5 % in 1934. The vast majority of the "Kadima" school pupils came from families who supported themselves by trade and crafts. In 1924, 51.5 % of the 167 pupils were children from families of tradesmen and 37.7 % of craftsmen. The profession of the fathers of the other pupils is unknown. A growing percentage of children came from relatively poor families. In 1928 only 41 out of the 181 children came from relatively poor families. However in 1932, 48 out of the 81 children were exempt from tuition fees that amounted to 4-10 Polish zloty a month.
The school closed down in 1935, mainly due to financial difficulties. The decreasing number of pupils and, at the same time, the increasing percentage of children whose parents did not pay tuition fees considerably reduced the school budget. In the school year 1932/33, the annual budget of "Kadima" amounted to 9,394 Polish zloty. The revenue from tuition fees amounted to 6,894 Polish zloty and constituted almost 75.5 % of the total. The remaining part of the budget came from municipal subsidies, funds provided by the Jewish community and from donations. Staff salaries accounted for a major part of the expenses – 77.5 %. Maintenance and school administration costs made up 15 % of the budget and the purchase of teaching aids and running a small library amounted to 7.5 % of the budget.
The "Kadima" legacy and tradition was carried on by the school of the "Tarbut" organization, founded in 1935. The Jewish Cultural-Educational Society "Tarbut" was established in
Most of the children previously attending the "Kadima" school transferred to the "Tarbut" school. In the school year 1936/37, 52 pupils were registered in the school's two departments. The opening of a new, third department was planned for the following year and the admission of an additional 40 pupils. Efroim Rubens was the principal of the school and he taught religion, Hebrew and math. The second teacher, Syma Frydling, had previously taught in "Kadima". Classes at the school were held in Polish and Hebrew. The "Tarbut" school shut down in 1939.
The Association of Jewish Schools, established in November 1934, ran the
The festive inauguration of the
The educational methods implemented in the newly established school were based on the educational program of the Religion and Public Education Ministry, designed for a 7-grade elementary school and adapted to the principles of the secular Jewish school, worked out within the framework of the First CISzO Convention. Yiddish was the school's language of instruction. Polish was taught to an extent that enabled children completing their education at the school to have a perfect command of spoken and written Polish (Polish history and geography were taught in Polish). As a matter of principle, the school was a secular institution and there were no religious classes. However, it was emphasized that this was due to the non-religious character of the school rather than to an anti-religious attitude. The school program highlighted aspects of socialist ideology. One of the principles of the program stipulated that the main objective of the school was to create a work-centered school: “The school endeavors to instill devotion and love of work among young people and to educate useful members of society”. The school also stressed the importance of physical education. Until 1930 Perla Wajn was the school headmistress. When she left, Estera Mendelson took over for a short time, to be succeeded by Lejba Szapiro who ran the school until its break-up in 1932. The school operated for seven years and employed eight teachers. Most of them had received their pedagogical training in Wilno, which was the main center of Yiddish education in
The school was located in two rented facilities on the opposite sides of the city. The first facility was situated at Lubelskie Przedmieście (at 115,
Although the number of pupils at the
A striking feature, incidentally not only of the Zamosc school but of the entire CISzO school network, was the predominance of girls in the school population. At the national level, girls made up 66% of all the pupils. However, in Zamosc in 1928 girls accounted for an impressive 86% (43 girls and 7 boys). This fact was due to the strong religious tradition that held sway in smaller towns, so that even families who advocated progressive values preferred to send their sons to the traditional cheder schools.
From the very first year of its existence, the
On the average, close to one third of the pupils were exempt from tuition fees, which the school organizers had intended to be the mainstay of its financial resources. In 1928 30% of the pupils did not pay any tuition fees at all, in 1929 – 31% and in 1931 – almost 37%. Some of the pupils paid reduced tuition fees, so that in 1930 only 26% of all the pupils paid the full amount of tuition fees. Decreasing revenue from this source forced the school management to gradually increase the tuition fees. In 1930 they still amounted to 4 Polish zloty, but a year later they rose to 30 Polish zloty. However, all these measures were to no avail. The increasing budget deficit resulted in the closing of the school on January 7, 1932.
The Religious-Zionist school "Jabne" was founded in Zamosc in 1917 and it was one of the first institutions of this kind in
The religious Jewish educational system comprised four basic types of institutions: the cheder schools, the Talmud-Torah schools, the "Bejs-Jakow" schools, and the yeshivas. All four types of institutions were active in Zamosc in the period between the two wars.
The cheder and the Talmud-Torah schools had existed for centuries and they were traditional institutions for boys until the age of 13 (the age at which, according to the Jewish tradition, boys reach manhood). The cheder (‘room’ in Hebrew) school was a private institution whereas a Talmud-Torah school was the property of the community and served children of poor families who could not afford to send their children to a cheder. Initial studies in a cheder comprised reading and writing in Hebrew, a precondition for studying the Bible and Talmud at a later stage. The traditional teaching method was memorization, based on melodious repetition after the religious teacher of specific excerpts from a given text. A cheder was usually situated in a single small room, which also served as the apartment of the religious teacher. Hygienic and sanitary conditions in such places constituted more often than not a blatant violation of the required standards.
Obsolete teaching methods, shortcomings in the secular syllabus and extremely unsatisfactory hygienic conditions in the cheders exposed the latter to criticism on the part of the progressive circles of the Jewish community. No reform of this type of schooling was carried out until compulsory education for children up to the age of 13 was enforced by the reborn
By
In 1921 the Nowa Osada "Talmud-Tora" was located on a street called Swinska Targowica, most likely situated close to the synagogue. For years the deputy rabbi of Nowa Osada, Mordko Szternfeld, was the principal of the school. The religious teachers were a father and son by the name of Szwarcberg. The father would teach older boys while his son, Szloma, the younger ones. Most of the boys attending the school (in 1921 there were thirty) came from the most impoverished families residing in Nowa Osada. Some of the boys were orphans.
In the beginning of the 1920s, the larger cheders in Zamosc were run by Icek Lejba Kajl (the "
The various specific features of the cheders, their private and religious character, made it completely impossible to supervise them and to list them all. To this day no documentation is available that might serve as an indication of the number of cheders that functioned in Zamosc in the period between the two wars. Documents from the years 1939-1940 make it possible to locate 22 cheders that operated until 1939. The actual number of the Zamosc cheders in the 1920s and 1930s was most certainly much higher.
In the 1920s a religious school for girls, the "Bejs-Jakow" school, was functioning in Zamosc. The school's syllabus comprised broad religious education and schooling in Jewish tradition and rituals. Unlike the cheders but in accordance with a Talmudic approach, the Bible was not an object of study in the "Bejs-Jakow" schools. Only women taught there. The Zamosc "Bejs-Jakow" operated in a facility that was located near the
Gifted cheder pupils had the option of continuing their studies in higher Talmudic schools, the ‘yeshivas’. The yeshivas catered to boys over the age of 13. These schools trained rabbis, religious judges (‘dayans’), teachers of religion, principals of religious schools and Talmud scholars. The yeshiva that operated in Zamosc, the "Ajc-Chaim" yeshiva, was founded in the second half of the 19th century. It was located near the Old City Bet-Hamidrash. Originally it was run by Josef Szloma Horowic, born in Włodawa and a descendant of the "Visionary from
They year 1922 saw the establishment of the first Jewish high school in Zamosc. It was the
In the mid-1930s it was becoming increasingly uncertain whether the school would continue its activities. The school premises were becoming the target of communist propaganda, encouraged by a certain number of pupils. Although the school dealt with this problem rather quickly (pupils suspected of communist activity were expelled), reprisals against the school on the part of the local educational authorities could not be avoided. The local Board of Education stripped J. Alterowich of his function as the principal, blaming him for lack of determination and procrastination and, on a temporary basis, entrusted his duties to Wiktor Jóźwiakowski. The first measure taken by the newly appointed principal was to replace the entire teaching staff. By 1933 not even one of the nine new teachers had previously taught at the school. Z. Klukowski wrote: "By means of his heavy-handed and ruthless methods, the new principal put the house in order".
After thoroughly reorganizing the school, principal Jóźwiakowski was recalled from his post to be replaced by a Polish language teacher, Bronislaw Fruchter. In 1935 the management of the high school passed from the Jewish Community to an association that was created especially for this purpose. The name of the association was the Association of Jewish High Schools in Zamosc and it was headed by doctor Bronislawa Rosenbusch-Spiegelglass, Jonas Peretz, Ksawery Bott and Eljasz Epsztajn. In 1939 the new, already privately-owned high school, was attended by no less than 155 pupils. The teaching staff increased to 15 of whom 4 were Polish teachers in charge of physical education and singing lessons. In 1937, former high school pupils attempted to establish a Group of Jewish Graduates in cooperation with the Association of Jewish High Schools in Zamosc, but to no avail. Since some of the founding members were suspected of subversive activities by the police, the authorities refused to register the association.
A vast majority of the Jewish children attended free public schools. In the period between the two wars, Zamosc had seven public elementary schools, two high schools, two teachers' colleges, a Crafts and Industry School, an Industry School for girls (tailoring and shirt-making), a Commercial School (the Merchants' High School) and the Public Agricultural School.
On the average, Jewish children who attended public schools in the years 1918-1939 made up one third of all the pupils. This was considerably less than the overall percentage of the Jewish population of the city. This was due to the fact that some of the Jewish children attended private schools and the cheders. The highest percentage of Jewish children went to public schools attended by children who lived in the
In schools attended by a high percentage of Jewish children there were also Jewish teachers. In the 1930s Izzak Chaim Szumer who came from Buczacz taught in school No.1. He taught the following subjects: religion, Polish, geography, natural sciences, math, drawing, singing, handwork and physical education. Chana Sztern also worked in this school as a teacher without tenure. She taught religion to Jewish girls. Izaak Szumer's wife, and Stefania and Hudesa Kimel taught in school No.2. They taught the same subjects as Izaak Szumer with the exception of religion, geography and natural sciences. In the remaining schools, Jewish teachers who had no tenure only taught religion. In the schools No. 3 and 6, Rebeka Rozen (later Malka Holc) taught religion and Chawa Cymryng taught in school No.5.
The percentage of Jewish pupils in both of the Zamosc high schools, the Hetman I. Zamoyski high school for boys and the M. Konopnicka high school for girls, amounted to 15-20%. In the years 1922-39, 93 Jewish boys, 15,3% of the total number of pupils, successfully obtained their high school certificates at the high school for boys. The highest number of Jewish pupils (10) graduated from the school in the years 1926 and
In the years 1922-1939, 368 girls graduated from the M. Konopnicka High School for girls, of whom 23.7% (86 girls) were Jewish. The highest number of Jewish girls (12) obtained their high school certificates in
Only a few Jews were studying in the other Zamosc high schools. In 1939 there were only 10 Jews (3.6%) among the 274 pupils of the Merchants' High School. At the same time, there were 7 Jewish girls (10%) attending the tailoring-lingerie school for girls. There were no Jews attending the remaining two schools (the agricultural one and the industry school for boys) at the end of the 1930s. There are no data as to the number of Jewish boys and girls studying at the two Zamosc teachers' colleges.
Izaak Szumer taught religion at the high school for girls as well as the high school for boys. Josef Sznajder and Chana Sztern taught religion at the
Almost all of the Jewish teachers in the city were members of the Zamosc branch of the Trade Union of Jewish School Teachers, established in 1922. Teachers of the "Kadima" school, mainly Szulim Wajner, Henia Gelibter, Josef Cesler and Abram Heron, were on the first board of the Trade Union. In the mid-1930s, a teacher at the Jewish high school, Adolf Ochlberg, was the chairman of the Trade Union. It was a statutory duty of the Trade Union to protect the rights of member teachers.
In addition to regular school education, Zamosc provided for other forms of extracurricular acquisition of knowledge. Almost all of the Jewish social organizations, public libraries and political movements and parties were involved in educational-cultural work. These institutions arranged lectures, workshops, celebrations and meetings with activists and creators of Jewish (but not only) culture and science. Most active in this field were associations whose main statutory task was to spread education and culture among the masses. The most significant of these associations were the "Tarbut" Cultural-Educational Association, the Association of Jewish Schools, The Culture League (Kultur-Liga), the "Freiheit" Cultural-Educational Association and the Jewish Popular Education League.
The Association of Jewish Schools that ran the
The branch of the Bund-dominated Culture League was created in Zamosc in March 1927, and its seat was located at 11,
A similar modest level of activity was displayed by the Jewish Cultural-Educational Association "Tarbut". Since 1935 its main efforts focused on running the Zionist school. The lectures and workshops it organized dealt mostly with the propagation of Hebrew culture and literature.
The former I. L. Perec library, managed by the Jewish Popular Education League, was used by this organization for educational initiatives and cultural events. In the second half of the 1920s a significant number of lectures on Jewish literature and art were held there. Open lectures organized by the League were extremely popular. In 1925, at the time of creation of the association, its board consisted of Moszko Lewin, Mendel Sznur, Rachmil Brondwajn, Juda Jungman and Josef Mendelson. At that time the organization numbered 150 members. Its activities were terminated in 1937.
The Cultural-Educational Association "Freiheit", associated with the rightist faction of the Poalej Syjon-Jamin, was founded in 1929. At the time of its establishment it had 80 members and its leaders were Jehuda Wagner and Lipa Erlich. In 1931 the board of "Freiheit" was made up of Samuel Szwerdszarf as chairman, Motel Lastigzon as secretary, Beniamin Rozen as treasurer and Moszko Wolf and Szloma Wajner as members. Four years later the organization numbered 75 members. It was still chaired by Szwerdszarf, the dental technician, whereas Mojżesz Dreszer was secretary, Izrael Fleszler was treasurer and the board members were Lejba Szmaragd and Szloma Wajler. The main area of "Freiheit's" activity was mass education. In 1934 the organization succeeded in setting up general education courses. The courses were held four times a week in the winter of 1934/35 and Mojżesz Dreszer was in charge of the course. There were also popular science lectures (given among others by Saul Grosbaum and Lejba Goldgraber), and excursions (in 1932, 30 people went to Krasnybród with Majer Celer). The organization was located at 16, Mickiewicz Square and, subsequently, at 10,
Similarly to several other cities, in 1924, Zamosc also witnessed the establishment of a branch of the Association for Assistance to Jewish Students in
In spite of considerable organizational, material and financial difficulties, the Jewish educational system that functioned in Zamosc in the period between the two wars greatly contributed to raising the general level of education in the local Jewish community. In addition to their educational function, the nine Jewish schools in Zamosc played a significant role in preserving the national-religious identity of their pupils, made them socially active and encouraged and promoted their cultural activities. Thanks to their activity that stretched over two decades, the Jewish schools succeeded in producing a large body of nationally, culturally and politically conscious youth.
One of the major achievements of the Zamosc schools was their success in teaching all age groups of Jewish children to speak and write Polish. Language-based assimilation was one of the primary objectives of middle-level Jewish schools and also of the Polish public schools (primary and high schools). Command of correct Polish was also a priority for other Jewish schools and even for those in which the language of education was either Yiddish (the
The Zionist and Bund-affiliated organizations in Zamosc deserve most of the credit for their efforts in the field of school and extracurricular education. Except for the religious schools, all the other educational institutions in Zamosc were established and run by socialist and various Zionist factions.
In spite of the support lent to Jewish school education by numerous parties, social organizations and wide circles of the Jewish population, several obstacles remained. Due to organizational difficulties, financial problems and lack of funds, most of the Jewish schools only operated for a few years. All the above-mentioned problems and the option of free public schooling were the reason why only very few Zamosc Jews were prepared to send their children to a Jewish school.
However, an overall assessment of the significance of Jewish school education in Zamosc would not be objective without relating to the social, political and industrial conditions that prevailed at the time. It is worth mentioning that the organizational problems faced by Jewish educational institutions were not caused by low-level quality of education offered by them, but by budget constraints and, consequently, constant financial hardship.
Libraries, reading-rooms and bookstores
One of the areas of cultural and educational activity on the part of the Zamosc Jews was the propagation of reading. Thanks to a number of associations and a wide segment of the Zamosc Jewish community, nine libraries and reading-rooms operated in Zamosc in the interwar period. The establishment of bookstores was also conducive to an increase in reading habits. Several of the owners of bookstores in Zamosc in the 19th century were Jews. In the second half of the 19th century large bookstores were owned, among others, by Chaim Dawid Szyfman, Michal Fidler and Salomon Goldman. In the interwar period, there were four bookstores in Zamosc owned and managed by Jews.
The first Jewish public library in Zamosc was founded in
The statute that was approved by the provincial authorities stated that the objective of the library was "to provide the inhabitants of Zamosc and its surroundings with an opportunity to read books, magazines and dailies at home and in the facilities of the Library-Reading-room at a low cost and in various languages". According to the statute, everybody aged over 16, regardless of sex, religion and nationality, could become a member of the library. It was a member's duty to pay an annual membership fee which in the beginning of the 1920s amounted to 7,200 marks. A member of the library could borrow and take home one book. In the case of more than one book, an additional charge had to be paid.
The library association was headed by a general assembly of members and a 5-person board, appointed by them. The main functions of the board consisted of budgetary control, making decisions pertaining to admission of new members and external representation of the association. In May 1921 the board was made up of the following persons: Rachmil Brondwajn, Jonas Peretz, Mojżesz Goldsztajn, Mordko Cwilich and Lejzor Finkman. At that time the library was clearly influenced by the Bund.
The most serious problem faced by the library after 1918 was the issue of legalizing its activity by the appropriate Polish authorities. Beginning in 1921, the board of the institution was trying in vain to be formally registered as an association. The reluctance of the district authorities as well as those of the province to legalize the library was mainly due to the fact that the leadership of the library and most of its members were suspected of pro-communist leanings. During a two-year long legalization struggle, the authorities displayed a great deal of ill will in this matter. Due to lack of formal charges, the leadership was constantly ordered to change the regulations, to pay additional fees, and to send in detailed reports about the library's activities. The purpose of these requirements was to postpone the legalization of the library as long as possible.
By the end of 1933 the library had approximately 700 hundred members. Most of the members were young people from families of workers, craftsmen and members of the intelligentsia. In addition to revenue generated by membership fees, the budget of the library was also supported by proceeds of cultural events, organized by the library (lectures, performances, literary soirees and concerts). Now and then, prominent representatives of Jewish culture would participate in these events. Among others, Dawid Polak held a number of lectures on literary topics on the premises of the library and also Zachariasz Bergner, poet and editor of the Warsaw-based literary periodical "Literarisze Bleter". Donations and street collections contributed greatly to the financing of the library's activities. In February 1924 the unified Jewish trade unions transferred approximately 2 billion marks towards the needs of the library. These funds were the result of the above-mentioned efforts.
Most of the funds raised by the library were used for the purchase of new books and current newspapers. In 1923 the library's book collection numbered approx. 7,000 volumes of which 2,000 were in Polish,
From 1922 onwards, communist influence was predominant among members of the library. In the course of time communists achieved almost total control of the library at the expense of the Bund. Reminiscing about the activities aimed at pushing the Bund out of the Trade Union Movement in Zamosc, the pre-war Zamosc communist, Izydor (Izrael) Wapniarski, described the situation that prevailed in the library: "We were equally successful with regard to the Perec public library. Until then the library was run by members of the Bund. However, after a short time, we managed to take over the management. The general assembly of readers elected only communists to sit on the board of the library. To a significant extent, we made use of the library to disseminate progressive and communist ideas. We saw to it that it would offer works of writers such as Gorki, Henry Barbusse, Romain Rolland, Heine, Ibsen, Sinclair, Żeromski, and in the sphere of political science works of Karl Marx, F. Engels, W. I. Lenin, and of Hempel on anti-religious topics. In 1922 the board of the library was made up of Lejzor Finkman, Samuel Goldsztajn, Adela Najmark and Jakub and Pinkwas Topf. The leadership of the library also included local well-known communists such as Mendel Roffel, Abus Spodek, Jakub Najmark and Majer Zycer. The facilities of the library quickly became the main meeting point of the local leadership of the KPRP (the Polish Communist Workers' Party).
The library's activities were brought to a stop in
Support by the MPs Zubowicz and Schipper did not help much. The final decision to close the association was made by the Ministry of Interior on August 5,
The closing of the popular cultural institution that had existed for over ten years had a depressing effect on the Jewish community of Zamosc. According to a situation report by the Zamosc governor in 1924, "a significant segment of the Jewish community, and even people affiliated with the Bund, complain about the closure of the Library-Reading-Room that was mostly controlled by communists, saying that young people's reckless behavior resulted in the destruction of a national Jewish institution". It is noteworthy that even prior to the decision to transfer the collection of books to the Jewish Popular Educational League, the library's original founders made an attempt to take it over. In September 1924, Jonas Peretz, Samuel Aszkenazy and Eljasz Epsztajn created an organization called "Culture and Education", especially for this purpose. Unfortunately, both the district and provincial authorities refused to register this association.
The library under the auspices of the Jewish Popular Educational league was opened on November 15,
The library was located in the building previously used by the Perec library at 2, Rynek (and from the end of the 1920s at 3,
The library and the Zamosc branch of the Jewish Popular Education League were liquidated in 1937, once it was established that communist activities took place on their premises. The largest Jewish collection of books in Zamosc was transferred, most probably still in 1937, to the Denominational Community (the suggestion was made already in 1924, at the time of the liquidation of the Perec library). In 1939 the collection was being taken care of by the Jewish Cultural-Religious Association that was created for this purpose. The library was still located at 3,
The second largest Jewish library in terms of the number of books that was functioning in the city was the Nowa Osada Popular Library-Reading-Room, named after Dr. Salomon Ettinger. This institution was founded on April 1, 1921. The initiative to establish the library came from young people residing in Nowa Osada. Among the founders were among others Moszko Hersz Nirenberg, Jochanan Morgensztern, Gerszon Henoch Cukier, Neche Rok, Zysel Wagner, Jakub Cymryng, Szlomo Gruber, Jakub Fajgenbojm, Jehuda Wagner and Lejba Rozen.
During the first meeting of the founders the decision was made to use the Perec library as a model for the new institution. The participants decided to start immediately collecting books and raising the necessary funds. In both cases they had to resort to the generosity of Nowa Osada residents and former Zamosc inhabitants living all over the world. A
During the first years of its existence, the library was mainly under the influence of the Bund and, to a lesser degree, of the left-wing Zionists. In the 1930s, the growing influence of the Polish Communist Party was beginning to leave its mark.
The library was open six days a week (except on Saturdays), for 25 hours on a weekly basis. Every day from 18.00 till 22.00, a reading-room within the library was open. Assessing the work of the library, councilman Mojżesz Herman wrote: “It was the only institution in Nowa Osada that enabled workers and the wider masses to borrow a book or to read a newspaper in the evening".
In 1926 the library had 200 registered members. In later years, their number was slowly decreasing. In 1930 there were 155 members and in October 1936 – 86 members. Most of the registered members of the library were young people employed in the crafts, students, workers and some of the few members of the Nowa Osada intelligentsia. Unlike the decreasing number of members of the library, from 1921 the collection of the library books was steadily growing. In 1926 the library had 1,500 books, in 1928 – 1,812 books, in 1930 – 1,998, in 1932 – 2,415 and in the mid-1930s – around 3,500. The majority of the books in the collection were in Yiddish. According to an estimate dating from December 1928, works in Yiddish made up 70% of the collection, in Polish – 28%, and in Hebrew and Russian – 2%. At that time the library subscribed to 16 different newspapers.
Revenues of the Nowa Osada library came more or less from the same sources as those of the Perec library: mainly from membership fees, donations of independent institutions, and street collections. In 1929 the budget of the library amounted to 3,413 zloty, which placed it in second place in the town, after the library of the Jewish Popular Education League.
The Nowa Osada library was a frequent organizer of cultural and educational activities such as lectures and literary soirees. The first one took place in 1922 and was dedicated to Icchak Lejbusz Perec. The brother of the poet, Jonas Szyja, gave a lecture called "Perec as a thinker". Rachmil Brondwajn gave a similar presentation and read to the assembled public an essay called "Perec as an artist". Samuel Aszkenazy reminisced about the poet's youth. The facilities of the library also served as a setting for the presentation of works by Szymon Anski, Leonid Andriejew, Mojżesz Nadir and Szolem Alejchem. The Nowa Osada library functioned until the outbreak of the Second World War. During the final period of its activity, the management of the library passed to an association called "Hapoel”.
A library, affiliated with the Zamosc branch of the Culture League, was the third institution that was under the influence of the Bund. Unfortunately, the available sources do not contain any information about its activities. It is only known that it must have been founded after 1927 (this was the year of the establishment of the Zamosc branch of "the Kulturliga"), and that it terminated its activities in October 1932. The library was most probably located on the premises of the mother organization at 11,
A library operating in association with the Jewish Secular School named after I. L. Perec was also a Bund institution. Both the school and the library were founded on the initiative of the Zamosc branch of the Association of Jewish Schools and were located at 115, Lubelskie Przedmieście. Both institutions were established in 1925. The collection of books in this library was rather limited. Between 1930 and 1931, the library had 70 books for pupils and 80 for teachers. The absolute majority of the books were most likely in Yiddish. In August 1931, both the school and the library were closed due to financial problems.
Leftist ideas also predominated in a library that was affiliated to the Class Trade Unions. The library was founded in October
In December 1928 the book collection of the library numbered 670 volumes, of which 70% were in Yiddish and 30% in Polish. Four years later there were 1,393 volumes –
The library was open on all days of the week. In 1930 about 200 readers were using its services. The institution was widely popular, especially among working-class youth and young people in the crafts. The library played an important cultural and educational role among these circles, as corroborated by the fact that in 1929 the library recorded 11 thousand instances of the borrowing of books. This meant that each of the members of the library had borrowed more than 50 books on a yearly basis. The library functioned until the outbreak of the Second World War.
Two large libraries in Zamosc were also organized by Zionists. The first one, the General Hebrew Library named after Dawid Friszman, was established on March 3, 1924, at the initiative of the Society of Lovers of the Hebrew Language, founded in 1922 (both institutions were created due to efforts of the youth organization Cejrej Syjon). The founders of the library were, among others, Abram Fecher, Berel Edelsberg, Motel Lastigzon and Aron Kopelman. The library functioned in cooperation with the
The main task of the newly established institution was the propagation of the Hebrew language and Hebrew literature. Consequently, the entire book collection of the library, numbering some 1,000 volumes, consisted of items in Hebrew. Although the library was affiliated to "Kadima", it was a general library, not a school institution. Zionist youth in the 16-18 age group predominated among its readers. According to the authors of the Zamosc Remembrance Book, books in Hebrew were borrowed by the Maskilim and even left-wing opponents of Zionism.
Reminiscing about the activities of the library, I. Goldwag wrote: "The development of the library peaked in the years 1924-1926 when the following persons joined the library's board: Hechtman, Zylbersztajn, Szlam, Elbaum, Rok, Fecher and Mandelbaum. They were extremely active and increased the collection of books. The funds necessary for the functioning of the library came from such events as literary soirees and lotteries, activating a great many people among Zionist youth for the purpose of making the library grow. The newest book editions would be acquired. The reading-room of the library had all the Hebrew newspapers, both dailies and monthlies. There was a Hebrew study group affiliated to the library that used to organize weekly lectures and open discussions in Hebrew on various topics".
In 1930 Mojżesz Rubinsztajn was chairman of the board of the library, Beniamin Rozen was secretary and Mojżesz Szlam was treasurer. Working on the development of the library were the leaderships of the General Zionists, of the Hitachdut, of the right-wing Poalej Syjon-Jamin and of the Mizrachi. Representatives of these parties would often meet during the cultural events organized by the library. During the 1927 celebration of the 10th anniversary of the Balfour Declaration, the joint festivities on the premises of the library were led by Mordko Josef Kronfeld, Hersz Chaim Gelibter, Szulim Wajner, Beniamin Rozen and Wegmajster.
In 1932, when Lejba Goldgraber took over from Rubinsztajn as manager of the library, it was already in a much worse situation than in the previous years. Low attendance, the dire situation of the "Kadima" school and the decreasing budgets led to the decision of June 1, 1932 to suspend the library's activities. The Hebrew book collection was later transferred to meet the needs of the "Tarbut" school.
The second library managed by Zionists was founded by members of the right wing Poalej Syjon-Jamin party. It operated in cooperation with the Cultural-Educational Society "Freiheit" that was under the influence of the party, and was named after Josef Chaim Brenner. To begin with its seat was located on the premises of "Freiheit" at 16,
The library was opened on Sunday, February 19, 1933. Unfortunately, nothing is known about its book collection, budget or readers. We know that it was in the form of a reading-room rather than an institution lending books. It subscribed to Jewish periodicals, including the "Hajnt" and 'Fołkscajtung". Most of its readers were probably supporters and members of the right wing Poalej Syjon-Jamin. At the beginning, Lipa Erlich was the manager. In 1939 Erlich was replaced by Mojżesz Roffeld, Josef Holdberg was his deputy and Hersz Erlich was secretary.
The last of the large libraries functioning in Zamosc was the previously mentioned institution that operated in the Old City Minor Synagogue. Its book collection consisted mainly of works on biblical and Talmudic topics, enabling visitors to study holy books and to engage in religious contemplation. Books that were the property of the synagogue could probably only be read on the premises of the synagogue. The library at the synagogue was the property of the Denominational Community.
The development of the book trade stemmed from the widespread demand for printed matter in Zamosc. The demand for books had a number of causes. The main one was the large number of schools in the city and the demand for handbooks on the part of the pupils. Moreover, libraries were in demand due to vigorous cultural-educational activities in the Zamosc society and a well-developed tradition of reading among the local, relatively numerous intelligentsia.
The oldest Jewish bookstore functioning in Zamosc in the interwar period was established in 1895 by Szaja Hernhut, the son of the well-known Zamosc printer, Mojżesz. Hernhut. He ran the firm for five years only and in 1900 he sold it to Icek Majer Kestenberg who was born in Zawichowo and came from
In 1911 Kelman Zegen opened a bookstore at 15,
In 1918, Estera Bokser, born in Biłgoraj, opened a library at 4,
The fourth Jewish-owned Zamosc bookstore belonged to the Hernhut brothers. After selling his first bookstore to Kestenberg, the older brother left Zamosc for a period of ten years. On his return in 1910 he once again opened a bookstore with his brother, but this time close to their father’s printing firm. The business operated successfully until 1929, when the brothers decided to stop bringing in new books. In later years, it was still possible to buy books that had remained on stock in the printing firm of the Hernhuts. Most of them were books for children. We may assume that printing services and the sale of stationery was more lucrative than dealing in books.
The propagation of reading in Zamosc in the interwar period was one of the most significant features of cultural and educational activity on the part of the Jewish community. Nine libraries and reading-rooms accessible to the public offered a wide selection of literature and newspapers, promoted the concept of individual study and, consequently, contributed to raising the overall level of education and the general and specialized knowledge among wide segments of the Jewish society.
In the mid-1930s the book collections in Jewish libraries in Zamosc numbered more than ten thousand (between 13-15 thousands) volumes in Yiddish, Hebrew, Polish, Russian, German, French and other languages. In addition to promoting reading, the libraries were involved in a wide range of cultural and educational activities such as lectures, speeches, literary soirees and meetings with writers. The Zamosc libraries owed their development first and foremost to the Bund and Zionist parties.
Printing-houses
The tradition of the printing trade in Zamosc went back to the end of the sixteenth century. The Zamojska Akademia printing-house was well known all over the country for more than two hundred years. It was one of the old Polish printing establishments (1593-1809) that had been active over the longest period. During its long existence, the printing-house had published approximately 1,700 publications. The first mention of a Jew operating a printing-house goes back to the year 1761, when its owner, Jozef Izraelowicz, transferred the existing printing business to a third party. The printing-house printed items in Hebrew, most probably dealing with religious topics.
Contemporary Zamosc printing was not established until after the dismantling of the fortress in 1866. From its very outset, it was almost completely dominated by local Jews. The largest and the longest-operating Jewish publishing house was founded in 1872. It was established by Mojżesz Hernhut, born in Chełm but a permanent resident of Lublin In the second half of the nineteenth century his business was equipped with three printing machines (including two manual ones). It had a rich selection of types with different cuts and formats both in Polish and Russian. Printed material produced by Hernhut stood out by its meticulous execution and esthetic form. The owner produced office forms for industry and trade, labels, advertisements, business cards and announcements of various events and arrangements. Some time around 1910, the Hernhut printing-house issued a high-quality series of postcards of Zamosc views and of the major city monuments.
The excellent reputation enjoyed by the firm resulted not only in orders coming in from the town and its surroundings, but also in projects ordered by people throughout the Polish Kingdom and even from other parts of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. At the time of the owner’s death in 1913, the entire printing complex of the Hernhuts comprised a publishing business, a lithography firm, a shop selling stationery and a bookstore, all located in a tenement at 22, Slusarska Street.
Two years before Mojżesz Hernhut's death, his two sons, Szaja, born in 1869, and Jakub, born in 1876, took over the management of the business. The printing-house functioned during the First World War and in 1921 it was again registered in the District Court. In the interwar period the printing-house received orders almost exclusively from Polish citizens, firms and institutions. The insignificant number of orders placed on the part of Jews was due to the simple fact that the printing-house only had a very limited number of Hebrew types. At the end of the 1920s the firm was equipped with two printing machines (a manual and a foot-powered one) and 8 composing frames with 65 trays. In the second half of the 1930s the firm replaced the manual machine by an engine-powered one. In 1939 only one person was working in the printing-house, most likely one of the owners.
The most significant customer of the Hernhuts' business was the Zamosc Estate. According to Z. Klukowski, the entire office of the estate received its supplies of stationery from the Hernhut brothers' firm. Likewise, any necessary printed matter was produced by their firm. Still according to Klukowski, the owners of the printing-house maintained excellent relations with several officials of the Estate. In order to satisfy the needs of the latter, the Hernhuts arranged a nicely furnished guest room at the back of their firm. The local PPS (Polish Socialist Party) was also a major customer of the Hernhuts. In
The Hernhut business also printed small editions of folders and, at times, books. The local newspapers were also printed there. In the years 1918-1919 it was "Kurier Zamojski" and in 1929, "Gazeta Zamojska". The outstanding reputation of the firm meant that even during the period of the commercial boycott of the Jews, conducted by the NS (the National Faction Party) in the second half of the 1930s, the turnover of the firm remained at its previous high level. It actually happened quite often that people of definitely nationalistic leanings continued to resort to the services of the firm, because its reliability and good reputation mattered more to them than the religious observance of the owners.
The second printing-house in Zamosc that operated until 1939, was established in 1908. It was the "Nowa Typografia" firm, founded by Szaja Szper, who came from Szczebrzeszyn. The firm was situated at 7,
In the early 1930s the Szpers would receive orders from most of the local parties and Zionist organizations (the right wing Poalej Syjon-Jamin, the Organization of General Zionists, Hechaluc Pioneer and Keren Kayemet LeIsrael), including the Bund and the Cultural League, Jewish schools ("Kadima" and the Coeducational High School), professional organizations (such as Jewish Guilds, the Trade Union of Jewish Masters and the Haulage Workers’ Trade Union) and social organizations (such as the TOZ and the Association of Jewish Schools). The Zamosc movie theaters, such as "Stylowy", "Bagatela" and "Jutrzenka", would print movie advertisements at the Szper’s firm. Polish institutions, such as The Association of Christian Craftsmen and the City Hall, were regular customers, and circuses visiting Zamosc and itinerant movie screeners placed orders for large editions. In addition, companies and private persons from such places as
During the entire interwar period, the business had only one single foot-driven printing machine. The texts were assembled on two composing frames with twenty trays each. At the time of its establishment, the firm produced prints in Polish, Yiddish and Russian. To begin with (until 1914), most of the prints were in Russian. This is corroborated by the fact that even in the mid-1930s most of the fonts owned by the printing-house were Russian. In 1935 some of them were replaced by Latin and Hebrew fonts. One year later, the printing-house had
In 1939 the only person working in the printing-house and executing orders, placed with the firm, was the son of the owner, Aleksander. He also had the final say in matters relating to the management of the company.
According to reminiscences by Eva Bar Zeev, the granddaughter of the owner of the printing-house, Chawa Szper was extremely well known in Zamosc. It was particularly her unconventional behavior that attracted a great deal of attention, in view of what was acceptable in those days. "When one takes a look at her lifestyle", Eva Bar Zeev recalls, "one can say that she was ahead of her time". When she wore pants, she stood out by her appearance. Every day before work she used to go down to the river for a swim. She would even do that on extremely cold days. She was known for her strong character and habit of working hard.
Another Jewish printing-house was established in 1911 by Aron Josef (Alter) Szmajser in a building at 2,
In 1925 the printing-house had one, manually operated printing machine and four composing frames with 33 trays. Out of more than a
For a very long period of time (the second half of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s), Wladyslaw Faron, the parish-priest of the Polish Catholic parish of Zamość, was one of the largest customers of the Szmajser printing-house. In 1931 orders placed by the parish-priest Faron made up more than half of all the orders received by the printing-house.
On the basis of incomplete printing records kept by the firms belonging to the Hernhut, Szper and Szmajser families, it is partly possible to establish the actual volume of the production by each of these firms. In 1930 the production of the Szper printing-house over a period of nine months constituted 59.4% of the production of all the Jewish printing-houses in Zamosc. The production of the firm of the Hernhut brothers made up 32 % of the total and that of the Szmajser family – 8.6%. A similar proportion most probably applied to the rest of the interwar period.
The production of the Henhut firm was smaller than that of the Szper firm, which is surprising in view of the traditions and the different sizes of the firms. A detailed analysis of the customer base of both printing-houses shows that the wealthier segments of society, well-known commercial and craftsmen's firms and a large proportion of independent Polish industrial and cultural institutions were customers of the Hernhut firm. According to their reputation, the prints executed by the Hernhut brothers were of a higher quality. It is most likely that the Hernhut brothers also charged a great deal more than their competitors. The customer base of the Szper printing-house consisted mostly of the moderately wealthy strata of the Jewish society. Production levels were high, but more often than not the products of the printing-house were of an inferior quality. A significant number of customers were probably attracted by lower prices than those charged by the Hernhut brothers.
There were a few more Jewish-owned printing-houses in Zamosc that operated on a temporary basis in the interwar period. As a rule, they were small and did not stay open long. In
The Press
Four Jewish periodicals were published in Zamosc in the interwar period. Three of them were published by Orthodox Jews and one by Zionists of the right wing Poalej Syjon-Jamin. In spite of the relatively large editions (ranging from 500 to 1,200 copies), they appeared only on and off. With the exception of the Zionist publication, the rest of the newspapers were published in just a few copies. Two periodicals, edited by the Orthodox Jews, would appeared irregularly, while the Zionist periodical disappeared for a period of nine years after a few months of publication.
The publication "Zamoszczer Sztyme", published by members of the right wing Poalej Syjon-Jamin, was founded in 1928 and issued in Yiddish. Its founder was the well-known party activist, Jochanan Morgensztern, and its first editor-in-chief the leader of the right wing Poalei Zion, Mojzesz Herman. The editorial office was located at 6,
The publication of the "Zamoszczer Sztyme" was not resumed until the beginning of 1937. The revival of the newspaper was the work of two people, Lejba Goldgraber and Mojżesz Zahler. Goldgraber, who came from Krasnobród, was a qualified bookkeeper. On the two-men editorial board of the newspaper, he was its owner, editor-in-chief and publisher. The editorial office was in his private home at 6/15,
The first copy of the revived publication appeared on January 15, 1937. Until the summer of 1939, around 60 bi-weekly editions of the newspapers were published. The authors of most of the editorials on local issues were mainly the leaders of the local right wing Poalej Syjon-Jamin party. There were excellent editorials written by Mojżesz Herman, Lejba Goldgraber, Mojżesz Zahler, Jakub Najmark, Majer Pekler, Lewi Rozenman and Moszko Szlam. Internal Jewish issues, raised by the newspaper, were usually commented on in accordance with the political line of the party. Consequently, the newspaper propagated the party's ideas and battled Orthodoxy and the Bund that was hostile to Zionists. In particular in 1939, before the municipal elections, the newspaper intensified its propaganda, resulting in the election of the member of the board of the newspaper, Mojżesz Zahler, to the City Council.
As the only Jewish newspaper published in Zamosc in the second half of the 1930s, the "Zamoszczer Sztyme" often took upon itself the role of the representative and spokesman of the entire local Jewish community, regardless of the internal divisions within it. The perseverance displayed by it in its advocacy of Jewish rights often caused it serious difficulties. One such situation arose in April 1939. At that time the editorial board of the "Zamoszczer Sztyme" published "an open letter" to the principal of the local high school named after Jan Zamoyski, in which it was pointed out to him that high school youth were participating in anti-Jewish happenings. He was called on to put a stop to this kind of behavior and to punish the leaders among the pupils of the highest grades. The reaction of the school management was very quick and nervous. The issue was submitted to the
Another Jewish newspaper that came out in Zamosc was the "Zamoszczer Wort". It was founded in 1930 by Orthodox Jews. It was published in Yiddish. Interestingly, with regard to format, it was the largest newspaper to appear in Zamosc in the interwar period. Its editor was a Nowa Osada resident, Berko Firsztman, and its publisher was Berko Perelmutter, residing in the
In the first copy of the newspaper the editorial board of the "Zamoszczer Wort" placed a brief message to the readers, explaining the motivation behind the publication of the newspaper. The message, entitled "To our readers", said: "We want to distribute an open-minded paper in our city. We are aware of the amount of work and responsibility involved in the task that we have taken upon ourselves – to publish a newspaper that reflects open-minded thinking. We hope that we shall be able to publish our newspaper. We are certain that the citizens of our city will support our work and will ensure our existence. Our outlook can be defined in five words: Everything Jewish is close to our hearts”. In the declaration submitted to the Mayor’s office, the editorial board stated that "religious issues and matters of general and social interest" would be the main topics addressed by the newspaper.
The first page of the newspaper contained mainly advertisements. In the first copy had advertisements, among others, by Abe Frydling (confectioner), Szloma Fersztendik and Lejba Rozen (wine merchants), I. J. Ajzensztat (grocery store), M. Ch. Aszyn (textile shop) and jeweler Icek Majer Kohen. The second page contained reprints of articles from the main press. In view of the approaching Passover holiday, these issues mainly dealt with holiday topics. The third page contained a column called "Of life in Zamosc and its surroundings" and provided a picture of Jewish life in Zamosc and in the surrounding areas. Topics concerning the activity of the Denominational Community and the "Gemilus Hesed" Saving Fund were addressed there. Most of the editorials dealing with local matters were written by B. Landan, I.B. Dawidson and Berko Firsztman.
The two other periodicals published by Orthodox Jews had a strictly religious character. The first one was called "Habajer" and was published for the first time in 1923. It was a mouthpiece of the rabbinate for the publications of comments on the Talmud and other religious works. The founder, publisher and editor of the "Habajer" was the Nowa Osada rabbi, Cwi Hersz Frydling. The paper came out in Hebrew and it was a quarterly.
The second rabbinate publication, the "Unzer Gajst", was published in Yiddish. It was also established by Cwi Hersz Frydling and he was its editor-in-chief. The owner and publisher was Berko Firsztman, the soon-to-be editor of the "Zamoszczer Wort". The first issue appeared in 1928 and the last one in 1930. The editorial office of the newspaper was located in Firsztman's house at 62,
In October 1936 Berko Firsztman applied to the Mayor’s office for a permit to publish another newspaper dealing with religious issues. The newspaper was to be called "Mefice Torah Wudath" and appear every three weeks. Unfortunately, we do not know whether the project was carried out.
Apart from local newspapers that appeared only irregularly, Zamosc Jews also read the main Jewish newspapers. The most popular were dailies published in the capital, such as the Zionist-democratic "Hajnt", the folkisch "Der Moment", the Bund-influenced "Fołkscajtung", the "Unser Ekspres" for the lower middle-class, and the Orthodox "Dos Judisze Tugblat". The largest company dealing in Jewish newspapers in the town was Regina Becher’s "Agencja kolportazu". It was located at 12,
The Jewish newspapers, published in Zamosc between the two wars, resembled in several respects other local periodicals that came out in major towns of the
5. Art and theater
Artistic and theater activity of the Zamosc Jews took a great variety of forms in the interwar period. The rich tradition was conducive to the development of Jewish cultural life. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Zamosc produced a multitude of prominent, world-class representatives of Jewish culture. Among those who came from Zamosc was Izrael ben Mosze (Izrael Zamosc), a philosopher, Bible commentator and one of the teachers of Mojżesz Mendelsohn, Dr. Salomon Ettinger, one of the pioneers of Yiddish literature in Poland, Aleksander Cederbaum, a writer and founder of several Jewish newspapers in Russia, including the Hebrew-language weekly "Hamelic" that came out in Odessa; poet Issachar ben Falkensohn, author of a famous book of poetry, reviewed by Goethe himself; and also the great Yiddish author, Icchak Lejb Perec (born in 1853). Bronisław Huberman, a brilliant violin player, professor at the
The first local amateur theater ensemble was founded in Zamosc in 1905. It was managed by one of the pioneers of Jewish theater in
The actors' ensemble of Bekierman's theater consisted mainly of amateurs. Among them were the daughter of the manager, Zysla Bekierman, Mojżesz Sobol, Chana Preszajzen, an employee of the City Hall, Ms. Perelmutter, Henryk Suchowolski and Abraham Forem. The activities of the theatre were interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War.
The reappearance of the amateur stage in Zamosc (however, with a completely new cast) took place in 1917. The revivers of theater life were affiliated to Zionist youth organizations, at that time emerging around the person of Hersz Chaim Gelibter. Spurred on by Josef Cesler, the former teacher at the "progressive cheder", managed by Geliebter, a new theater troupe was formed within the framework of the "Tzeirei Zion" organization. One of its first cultural initiatives was a "Herzl evening" with recitations, art performances and a musical production, on the anniversary of the death of the father of Zionism. Among the performers were Szewa Fecher (she recited Bialik's poetry) and the couple Malka Brondwajn and Nachum Korngold. In the winter of
Hersz Chaim Gelibter himself headed the expanded ensemble. Originally, most of the plays were staged in the City Theatre, managed by Wacław Adler, later in the movie-theater and "Oaza" theater. The first play staged by the group was "Der Dorfsjung" by L. Kabrin, directed by Josef Cesler.
In the early 1920s, another amateur theater group was created within the framework of the local Bund party. After a while, the Bund group developed close ties with the Tzeirei Zion group and, according to the authors of reminiscences in the Zamosc Memorial Book, both groups reached the conclusion that the existence of two similar theater groups in the town was pointless and that it was necessary to join forces. The initiative aimed at unifying both groups was the work of Bund member Chaim Szpizajnen and of the Tzeirei Zionist, Nachum Korngold. The unification finally occurred in the mid-1920s.
It is thought provoking that two groups, politically and ideologically completely divergent, did merge (notwithstanding the similarity of their repertoire). On the one hand a pro-Bund, Yiddish-speaking and clearly anti-Zionist group and, on the other hand, a Zionist-oriented group, advocating Hebrew and hostile to Yiddish culture. The merger of two ideologically so opposed cultural environments was only possible under one condition – that one of the groups would abandon the political line it had toed so far. It quickly turned out that the pro-Bund elements in the new group prevailed. Beginning in 1925, the unified ensemble started performing at the
Smaller theater groups existed in association with social, political and trade union organizations. Unfortunately, available sources contain only very little data about their activities. Among Jewish trade union organizations, amateur theater performances were staged by the guild of barbers and shavers, by the milliners, furriers and tailors (performances in the movie theater "Oaza" with the participation of trade union members Icek Szeps and Wigdor Feldsztajn), by the Trade Union of Jewish Masters and by the Garment Trade Workers' Trade Union (in 1926 the play "Draft" with Benjamin Zajdner and the comedy "Member of the Intelligentsia" with Wolf Kormas).
The Jewish literary scene of Zamosc in the interwar period did not produce any prominent representatives. Only two authors wrote professionally on biblical and Talmudic subjects, rabbi Cwi Hersz Frydling and Berko Firsztman. They presented their works in the columns of the publications "Habajer" and "Unzer Gajst", edited by them. The poems by a pupil of the local high school for boys, Dawid Sztern, undoubtedly a gifted poet, used to appear in the school newspaper "Our Thoughts", edited by the pupils, and in occasional publications by the
Local musicians were slightly more active than the literary set. Their musical activities would take on different forms such as solo performances and creative work by bands and choirs. The five-person family band of the Blum brothers, already playing in the 1890s, was extremely popular.
Lejzor Sznycer was one of the best-known Zamosc musicians in the interwar period. The jazz band that he headed played at several Zamosc balls and ceremonies. The violinist Sznycer and the pianist Bolesław Chmurzynski gave daily duet performances in the Zamosc movie theaters "Oaza" and "Stylowy". Lejzor's older brother, Abraham Sznycer, was also a musician. Several klezmer bands played Jewish folk music at weddings and other celebrations. Herszek Wigdor Gał, Mordche Kamień and Abram Szabsaj played in such bands.
Traditionally, singing played an important role in synagogue liturgy. The cantor fulfilled an important function in every synagogue. The cantor’s vocal talent was frequently crucial to the prestige of the synagogue where he performed. More often than not, the good voice of the cantor was appreciated on a par with the knowledge of the rabbi leading the prayers. Among the cantors in Zamosc were the following: I. Bok, Icek Zelik Alper, Chaim Goldszmit, Hersz Wolf Rajfur and Mosze Rudnicki. The latter was the most famous one. Apart from his activities in the synagogue, Mosze Rudnicki also left his mark in Zamosc as the organizer of a greatly appreciated high-level Jewish religious choir.
Other spheres of art were represented in Zamosc to a very limited extent. Ignacy Spiegelglass, the husband of the well-known Zamosc doctor Bronislawa Rosenbusch, enjoyed local fame as an interior designer, decorator and designer of objects for everyday use (mostly furniture). Among his works was the design and decoration of the apartment and dining room of one of the wealthiest Zamosc merchants, Wigdor Inlender.
Szloma Mermelsztajn was the most professional of the Zamosc painters. In the years 1935-36, he was entrusted with most of the work in connection with the large-scale refurbishing of the properties in the
The main feature of Jewish artistic life in pre-war Zamosc was its amateurish quality. Lack of professional grounding on the part of the initiators and performers was partly due to the mass character of the events they organized. Almost all the strata of the Zamosc Jewish community dabbled in the arts. Students were particularly active (first and foremost in theatrical performances), and also politically involved and ideologically conscious workers and craftsmen. In spite of the lack of professional training and stage experience, the events and plays organized by them were often exceptionally lively and effective. The impetus for this valuable activity was another feature, characteristic of the Zamosc artistic circles – an unusually intensive involvement in the cultural activities of Jewish youth.